понедельник, 30 апреля 2012 г.
среда, 25 апреля 2012 г.
Geography (A Poem)
Islands and peninsulas, continents and capes,
Dromedaries, cassowaries, elephants and apes,
Rivers, lakes and waterfalls, whirlpools and the sea,
Valley-beds and mountain-tops - - are all Geography!
The capitals of Europe with so many curious names,
The North Pole and the South Pole and Vesuvius in flames,
Rice-fields, ice-fields, cotton-fields, fields of maize and tea,
The Equator and the Hemispheres - - are all Geography!
The very streets I live in, and the meadows where I play,
Are just as much Geography as countries far away,
Where yellow girls and coffee boys are learning about me
One little white-skinned stranger who is in Geography!
by ~ Eleanor Farjeon
http://strangersandpilgrimsonearth.blogspot.com/2011/10/geography-poems-and-play.html
Dromedaries, cassowaries, elephants and apes,
Rivers, lakes and waterfalls, whirlpools and the sea,
Valley-beds and mountain-tops - - are all Geography!
The capitals of Europe with so many curious names,
The North Pole and the South Pole and Vesuvius in flames,
Rice-fields, ice-fields, cotton-fields, fields of maize and tea,
The Equator and the Hemispheres - - are all Geography!
The very streets I live in, and the meadows where I play,
Are just as much Geography as countries far away,
Where yellow girls and coffee boys are learning about me
One little white-skinned stranger who is in Geography!
by ~ Eleanor Farjeon
http://strangersandpilgrimsonearth.blogspot.com/2011/10/geography-poems-and-play.html
SIR FRANCIS DRAKE (1540?-1596)
Sir Francis Drake was always dreaming that he would sail, and he did. Drake was an Englishman who hoped to explore possibilities of trade and colonial settlement in the Pacific Ocean and to find the western outlet of the Northwest Passage. He wanted to find an undiscovered continent that was thought to lie in the Pacific.
Drake became a ship's captain in 1567, and he lead several trading voyages from England to the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
In 1577, Queen Elizabeth I chose him to lead a secret expedition to the Pacific coast of North America.
He started his voyage on December 13, 1577. He and more than 160 men sailed from Plymouth on five ships, including Drake's flagship, the Golden Hind.
After leaving Sao Tiago in the Cape Verde Islands, Drake's expedition met two Portuguese ships. He captured one of the vessels and gave its command to a friend,Thomas Doughty. The ships then sailed south along the Atlantic coast of South America and ran into violent storms. They stopped at San Julian.
Before leaving San Julian, Drake destroyed the supply ships and the ships that he had picked up (the Portuguese ships) because they were in bad condition.
The remaining three ships sailed through the Strait of Magellan. Shortly after that some more violent storms wrecked the Marigold and blew the Elizabeth off course forcing it to return to England. The storms also blew the Golden Hind, which he was sailing on, way to the south. Drake then headed north along the Pacific coast of South America. He captured a Spanish ship the Cacafuego and stole its cargo of gold, silver, and jewels.
Loaded with treasure, the Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of North America. Drake then turned south and repaired his ship where what is now called San Fransico and named the new area New Albion. He claimed the land for England.
Drake had planned to return to England through the Strait of Magellan, not to sail around the world. But he feared an attack from the Spanish if he sailed south again. So he decided to sail home by the Pacific and Indian oceans.
Drake became a ship's captain in 1567, and he lead several trading voyages from England to the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
In 1577, Queen Elizabeth I chose him to lead a secret expedition to the Pacific coast of North America.
He started his voyage on December 13, 1577. He and more than 160 men sailed from Plymouth on five ships, including Drake's flagship, the Golden Hind.
After leaving Sao Tiago in the Cape Verde Islands, Drake's expedition met two Portuguese ships. He captured one of the vessels and gave its command to a friend,Thomas Doughty. The ships then sailed south along the Atlantic coast of South America and ran into violent storms. They stopped at San Julian.
Before leaving San Julian, Drake destroyed the supply ships and the ships that he had picked up (the Portuguese ships) because they were in bad condition.
The remaining three ships sailed through the Strait of Magellan. Shortly after that some more violent storms wrecked the Marigold and blew the Elizabeth off course forcing it to return to England. The storms also blew the Golden Hind, which he was sailing on, way to the south. Drake then headed north along the Pacific coast of South America. He captured a Spanish ship the Cacafuego and stole its cargo of gold, silver, and jewels.
Loaded with treasure, the Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of North America. Drake then turned south and repaired his ship where what is now called San Fransico and named the new area New Albion. He claimed the land for England.
Drake had planned to return to England through the Strait of Magellan, not to sail around the world. But he feared an attack from the Spanish if he sailed south again. So he decided to sail home by the Pacific and Indian oceans.
Drake stopped many times for supplies. After crossing the Indian ocean he sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. Drake reached Plymouth on September 26, 1580. He had been out at sea for almost three years and the voyage made him a national hero and he is still today.
http://library.thinkquest.org/4034/hall_of_fame.html
VASCO da GAMA (1460?-1524)
The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama led an expedition at the end of the 15th century that opened the sea route to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa.
He was born about 1460 at Sines. He was a gentleman at court when he was chosen to lead the expedition to India.
Many years of Portuguese exploration down the West African coast had been rewarded when Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. The Portuguese then planned to send a fleet to India for spices and to outflank the Muslims in Africa. Vasco da Gama was placed in command of the expedition.
Four ships left Lisbon on July 8, 1497--the Sao Gabriel, on which da Gama sailed, the Sao Rafael, the Berrio, and a storeship. They stopped in the Cape Verde Islands; from there they did not follow the coast, as earlier expeditions had, but stood well out to sea. They reached the Cape of Good Hope region on November 7.
The ships rounded the Cape on November 22. The expedition stopped on the East African coast, broke up the storeship, and reached Mozambique on Mar. 2, 1498. There they were assumed to be Muslims, and the sultan of Mozambique supplied them with pilots, who guided them on their journey northward. They stopped in Mombasa and Malindi before sailing to the east.
They crossed the Indian Ocean in 23 days, aided by the Indian pilot Ibn Majid, and reached Calicut on May 20, 1498. The local ruler, the Zamorin, welcomed the Portuguese, who at first thought that the Indians, actually Hindus, were Christians.
After one further stop on the Indian coast, the Portuguese set out to return with a load of spices. They took three months to recross the Indian Ocean, however, and so many men died of scurvy that one of the ships, the Sao Rafael, was burned for lack of a crew. The expedition made a few stops in East Africa before rounding the Cape of Good Hope on Mar. 20, 1499. The ships were separated off West Africa in a storm and reached Portugal at different times. Da Gama stopped in the Azores and finally reached Lisbon on Sept. 9, 1499.
Da Gama's success led to the dispatch of another Portuguese fleet, commanded by Pedro Alvares Cabral. Some of the men Cabral left in India were massacred, so King Manuel ordered da Gama to India again. He was given the title of admiral and left Portugal in February 1502 with 20 ships. Da Gama's mission was a success, and the fleet returned to Lisbon in October 1503.
He was born about 1460 at Sines. He was a gentleman at court when he was chosen to lead the expedition to India.
Many years of Portuguese exploration down the West African coast had been rewarded when Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. The Portuguese then planned to send a fleet to India for spices and to outflank the Muslims in Africa. Vasco da Gama was placed in command of the expedition.
Four ships left Lisbon on July 8, 1497--the Sao Gabriel, on which da Gama sailed, the Sao Rafael, the Berrio, and a storeship. They stopped in the Cape Verde Islands; from there they did not follow the coast, as earlier expeditions had, but stood well out to sea. They reached the Cape of Good Hope region on November 7.
The ships rounded the Cape on November 22. The expedition stopped on the East African coast, broke up the storeship, and reached Mozambique on Mar. 2, 1498. There they were assumed to be Muslims, and the sultan of Mozambique supplied them with pilots, who guided them on their journey northward. They stopped in Mombasa and Malindi before sailing to the east.
They crossed the Indian Ocean in 23 days, aided by the Indian pilot Ibn Majid, and reached Calicut on May 20, 1498. The local ruler, the Zamorin, welcomed the Portuguese, who at first thought that the Indians, actually Hindus, were Christians.
After one further stop on the Indian coast, the Portuguese set out to return with a load of spices. They took three months to recross the Indian Ocean, however, and so many men died of scurvy that one of the ships, the Sao Rafael, was burned for lack of a crew. The expedition made a few stops in East Africa before rounding the Cape of Good Hope on Mar. 20, 1499. The ships were separated off West Africa in a storm and reached Portugal at different times. Da Gama stopped in the Azores and finally reached Lisbon on Sept. 9, 1499.
Da Gama's success led to the dispatch of another Portuguese fleet, commanded by Pedro Alvares Cabral. Some of the men Cabral left in India were massacred, so King Manuel ordered da Gama to India again. He was given the title of admiral and left Portugal in February 1502 with 20 ships. Da Gama's mission was a success, and the fleet returned to Lisbon in October 1503.
Da Gama then settled in Portugal, married, and raised a family. He may have served as an advisor to the Portuguese crown and was made a count in 1519. King John III sent him to India in 1524 as viceroy, but he soon became ill and died in Cochin on Dec. 24, 1524.
Vasco de Gama was an important explorer and made a very important trip around the tip of Africa. He had a hard voyage, but made it back successfully. He was brave and a good leader.
Vasco de Gama was an important explorer and made a very important trip around the tip of Africa. He had a hard voyage, but made it back successfully. He was brave and a good leader.
среда, 18 апреля 2012 г.
CAPTAIN JAMES COOK (1728-1779)
James Cook, an English navigator, is often called the greatest explorer of the 18th century, for his voyages to the Pacific Ocean, and how he used science to help with his exploration and cartography.
He was born on October 27, 1728, and he was the son of a poor Scotsman who lived in Yorkshire. He started out in the navy as a lowly mate, in 1755, and in four years, he became a master. Then, he participated in naval operations during the Seven Years' War, as a surveyor, in command of the Mercury.
When the war ended, in 1763, he again used his surveying skills by commanding the schooner Grenville, and he spent much time surveying Labrador, Nova Scottia, and Newfoundland. He studied mathematics very vigorously, and in 1766, he used a solar eclipse to measure the longitude of Newfoundland, and his findings were published in the Transactions of the Royal Society. When he returned to England in 1767, he was commissioned a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy.
He had three major voyages of exploration throughout his rather short life: the Voyage of the Endeavour, and the Voyages of the Resolution.
The Voyage of the Endeavour
In 1768, the Royal Society requested the Admiralty's help in observing the transit of Venus at Tahiti, which was to occur in June of 1769. This was part of a big project to help sailors figure out their longitude position at sea. Up to this time, it was impossible to do this accurately, so navigators had to guess, more or less, how far east or west they were at sea.
James Cook was chosen as commander of this expedition, because of his abilities with navigation and mathematics. He was also given secret instructions to search for "terra australia incognita," or "the unknown southern land" in English . He left with his crew, many scientists, an astronomer, two botanists, and many artists, on August 26, 1768.
During the voyage, Cook was smart to bring along provisions that lasted, so that crew members did not easily get scurvy. By April, 1769, the ship reached Tahiti's shores. In the three months that they spent there, the island was thoroughly surveyed, and the transit of Venus was observed on June 3, 1769.
After leaving Tahiti, they sailed until they arrived on land on October 7, 1769. After their arrival, on an island which turned out to be New Zealand, Cook and his men explored and surveyed many various islands around the area. Then they sailed west, and reached the unexplored eastern coast of Australia. Cook sailed north along that coast to learn more about the land. Later, the Endeavor was damaged seriously by a coral reef, and it took two months of repair work to make the ship seaworthy again. Finally, on July 13, 1771, James Cook reached England.
First Voyage of the Resolution
Because the Admiralty was still not sure if there was a large southern continent, Cook was called on again to command the Resolution, which was accompanied by the Adventure. As before, they took along many scientists and artists. They left Plymouth on July 13, 1772. Once they reached the Cape of Good Hope, they then traveled south and crossed the Antarctic Circle. They found no continent, so they then explored the South Pacific. The two ships lost contact, and the Adventure returned to England. That was the first ship to circumnavigate the globe from west to east.
But the Resolution kept exploring, and again crossed the Antarctic Circle, and again crossed the South Pacific, with much exploring along the way. He sailed across the South Atlantic, and again to the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. Finally, he sailed to England, and he reached the docks in 1775. He had finally proven that there was no large continent in the warmer part of the Pacific, but he was sure that there was an Antarctic continent. He was then elected into the Royal Society and was promoted to Captain. Then he again sailed on the Resolution.
Second Voyage of the Resolution
He was born on October 27, 1728, and he was the son of a poor Scotsman who lived in Yorkshire. He started out in the navy as a lowly mate, in 1755, and in four years, he became a master. Then, he participated in naval operations during the Seven Years' War, as a surveyor, in command of the Mercury.
When the war ended, in 1763, he again used his surveying skills by commanding the schooner Grenville, and he spent much time surveying Labrador, Nova Scottia, and Newfoundland. He studied mathematics very vigorously, and in 1766, he used a solar eclipse to measure the longitude of Newfoundland, and his findings were published in the Transactions of the Royal Society. When he returned to England in 1767, he was commissioned a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy.
He had three major voyages of exploration throughout his rather short life: the Voyage of the Endeavour, and the Voyages of the Resolution.
The Voyage of the Endeavour
In 1768, the Royal Society requested the Admiralty's help in observing the transit of Venus at Tahiti, which was to occur in June of 1769. This was part of a big project to help sailors figure out their longitude position at sea. Up to this time, it was impossible to do this accurately, so navigators had to guess, more or less, how far east or west they were at sea.
James Cook was chosen as commander of this expedition, because of his abilities with navigation and mathematics. He was also given secret instructions to search for "terra australia incognita," or "the unknown southern land" in English . He left with his crew, many scientists, an astronomer, two botanists, and many artists, on August 26, 1768.
During the voyage, Cook was smart to bring along provisions that lasted, so that crew members did not easily get scurvy. By April, 1769, the ship reached Tahiti's shores. In the three months that they spent there, the island was thoroughly surveyed, and the transit of Venus was observed on June 3, 1769.
After leaving Tahiti, they sailed until they arrived on land on October 7, 1769. After their arrival, on an island which turned out to be New Zealand, Cook and his men explored and surveyed many various islands around the area. Then they sailed west, and reached the unexplored eastern coast of Australia. Cook sailed north along that coast to learn more about the land. Later, the Endeavor was damaged seriously by a coral reef, and it took two months of repair work to make the ship seaworthy again. Finally, on July 13, 1771, James Cook reached England.
First Voyage of the Resolution
Because the Admiralty was still not sure if there was a large southern continent, Cook was called on again to command the Resolution, which was accompanied by the Adventure. As before, they took along many scientists and artists. They left Plymouth on July 13, 1772. Once they reached the Cape of Good Hope, they then traveled south and crossed the Antarctic Circle. They found no continent, so they then explored the South Pacific. The two ships lost contact, and the Adventure returned to England. That was the first ship to circumnavigate the globe from west to east.
But the Resolution kept exploring, and again crossed the Antarctic Circle, and again crossed the South Pacific, with much exploring along the way. He sailed across the South Atlantic, and again to the Cape of Good Hope in Africa. Finally, he sailed to England, and he reached the docks in 1775. He had finally proven that there was no large continent in the warmer part of the Pacific, but he was sure that there was an Antarctic continent. He was then elected into the Royal Society and was promoted to Captain. Then he again sailed on the Resolution.
Second Voyage of the Resolution
When he went exploring in the Arctic Ocean in search of Antarctica, the ship was damaged. He sailed to Hawaii for repairs, and he was killed an a small battle with some native Polynesians, on February 14, 1779. The Resolution then returned to England.
http://library.thinkquest.org/4034/hall_of_fame.html
JOHN CABOT (1450?-1499)
John Cabot (known as Giovanni Caboto in Italy) was a great Italian navigator and explorer. He was probably born in Genoa, Italy around 1450, but he moved to Venice and that is where he most likely learned to sail.
In 1484, he moved again, this time to Bristol in England. That's when he decided to call himself John Cabot, the "English" version of his name. Like Columbus and others of his time, Cabot believed that Asia could be reached by sailing westward. Up until then, the only known way to get to Asia was by going east. Some wealthy Englishmen liked his ideas and paid for him to lead an westward expedition to Asia. They were anxious to find an easier and quicker way to bring back goods from Asia to trade in Europe.
He made his first voyage to North America (which he thought was Asia) in 1497. The ship was called the Matthew and had a crew of 18 men. He sailed northwest, through the stormy Atlantic Ocean, and eventually came to North America. He sailed along the coast, past Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England. He claimed the land he found for England. King Henry VII was pleased with his efforts and granted Cabot a pension of 20 pounds a year.
In 1498, Cabot wanted to return to find "Japan," so he organized another expedition. This time, he took four or five ships and about 300 men and left Bristol in June of 1498. No one knows for certain what happened to this expedition, but it may have sailed from Greenland southward towards Chesapeake Bay in North America. Cabot had to return to England because he was running out of supplies, and he died soon after returning.
In 1484, he moved again, this time to Bristol in England. That's when he decided to call himself John Cabot, the "English" version of his name. Like Columbus and others of his time, Cabot believed that Asia could be reached by sailing westward. Up until then, the only known way to get to Asia was by going east. Some wealthy Englishmen liked his ideas and paid for him to lead an westward expedition to Asia. They were anxious to find an easier and quicker way to bring back goods from Asia to trade in Europe.
He made his first voyage to North America (which he thought was Asia) in 1497. The ship was called the Matthew and had a crew of 18 men. He sailed northwest, through the stormy Atlantic Ocean, and eventually came to North America. He sailed along the coast, past Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England. He claimed the land he found for England. King Henry VII was pleased with his efforts and granted Cabot a pension of 20 pounds a year.
In 1498, Cabot wanted to return to find "Japan," so he organized another expedition. This time, he took four or five ships and about 300 men and left Bristol in June of 1498. No one knows for certain what happened to this expedition, but it may have sailed from Greenland southward towards Chesapeake Bay in North America. Cabot had to return to England because he was running out of supplies, and he died soon after returning.
http://library.thinkquest.org/4034/hall_of_fame.html
понедельник, 9 апреля 2012 г.
пятница, 6 апреля 2012 г.
понедельник, 2 апреля 2012 г.
Christopher Columbus
Explorer and navigator Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life. Columbus participated in several other expeditions to Africa. 1492, Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Niña along side. He has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization.
Early Voyages
Explorer, navigator, Columbus was born in 1451, in the Republic of Genoa (Italy) to the son of a weaver. Columbus first went to sea as a teenager, participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One such voyage, to the island of Khios, in modern day Greece, brought him the closest he would come to Asia.
His first voyage into the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 nearly cost him his life as the commercial fleet he was sailing with was attacked by French privateers off the coast of Portugal. His ship was burned and Columbus had to swim to the Portuguese shore and make his way to Lisbon, Portugal, where he eventually settled and married Felipa Perestrello. The couple had one son, Diego in about 1480. His wife died soon after and Columbus moved to Spain. He had a second son Fernando who was born out of wedlock in 1488 with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana.
Columbus participated in several other expeditions to Africa gaining knowledge of the Atlantic currents flowing east and west from the Canary Islands. Muslim domination of the trade routes through the Middle East makes travel to India and China difficult. Believing a route sailing west across the Atlantic would be quicker and safer, Columbus devised a plan to sail west to get reach the East. He estimated the earth to be a sphere approximately 63% its actual size and the distance between the Canary Islands and Japan to be about 2,300 miles. Many contemporary nautical experts disagreed, adhering to the second century BC estimate of the earth's circumference at 25,000 miles. This made the distance between the Canary Islands and Japan about 12,200 statute miles. While experts disagreed with Columbus on matters of distance, they concurred that a westward voyage from Europe would be an uninterrupted water route.
First Voyage to the New World
Rejected by the Portuguese king for a three-ship voyage of discovery, Columbus took his plan first to Genoa and then to Venice but was rejected there too. He then went to the Spanish monarchy of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1486. Their nautical experts too were skeptical and initially, Columbus was rejected. The idea however, must have intrigued the monarchs, for they kept Columbus on a retainer. But their focus was on a war with the Muslims and Columbus would have to wait.
Columbus continued to lobby the royal court and soon after the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January of 1492, the monarchs agreed to finance his expedition. In August of 1492, Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Niña along side. After thirty-six days of sailing, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in the present day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain. There he encountered a timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors exchanging glass beads, cotton balls, parrots, and spears. The Europeans also noticed bits of gold the natives wore for adornment.
Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and meeting with the leaders of the native population. During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders,Columbus' men salvaged what they could and built the settlement Villa de la Navidad ("Christmas Town") with lumber from the ship. Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the settlement. Convinced his exploration had reached Asia, he set sail for home with the two remaining ships.
Subsequent Voyages
Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing, somewhat exaggerated report and was warmly received by the royal court. That same year he took to the seas on his second expedition and explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean. Upon arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed with all the sailors massacred. Spurning the wishes of the queen, who found slavery offensive, Columbus established a forced labor policy over the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold, believing it would prove to be profitable. His efforts produced small amounts of gold and great hatred among the native population. Before returning to Spain, Columbus left his brothers Bartholomew and Diego to govern the settlement on Hispaniola and sailed briefly around the larger Caribbean islands further convincing himself he had discovered the outer islands of China.
It wasn't until his third voyage that Columbus actually reached the mainland exploring the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela. Unfortunately, conditions at the Hispaniola settlement had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny with settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus' claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers. The Spanish Crown sent a royal official who arrested Columbus and stripped him of his authority. He returned to Spain in chains to face the royal court. The charges were later dropped but Columbus lost his titles as governor of the Indies and for a time, much of the riches made during his voyages.
Convincing King Ferdinand that one more voyage would bring the abundant riches promised, Columbus went on what would be his last voyage in 1502, traveling along the eastern coast of Central America in an unsuccessful search for a route to the Indian Ocean. A storm wrecked one of his ships stranding the captain and his sailors on the island of Cuba. During this time, local islanders, tired of the Spaniards poor treatment and obsession with gold, refused to give them food. In a spark of inspiration, Columbus consulted an almanac and devised a plan "punish" the islanders by taking away the moon. On February 29, 1504, a lunar eclipse alarmed the natives enough to re-established trade with the Spaniards. A rescue party finally arrived, sent by the royal governor of Hispaniola in July and Columbus and his men were taken back to Spain in November of 1504.
Rejected by the Portuguese king for a three-ship voyage of discovery, Columbus took his plan first to Genoa and then to Venice but was rejected there too. He then went to the Spanish monarchy of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon, in 1486. Their nautical experts too were skeptical and initially, Columbus was rejected. The idea however, must have intrigued the monarchs, for they kept Columbus on a retainer. But their focus was on a war with the Muslims and Columbus would have to wait.
Columbus continued to lobby the royal court and soon after the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January of 1492, the monarchs agreed to finance his expedition. In August of 1492, Columbus left Spain in the Santa Maria, with the Pinta and the Niña along side. After thirty-six days of sailing, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in the present day Bahamas, claiming it for Spain. There he encountered a timid but friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors exchanging glass beads, cotton balls, parrots, and spears. The Europeans also noticed bits of gold the natives wore for adornment.
Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and meeting with the leaders of the native population. During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders,Columbus' men salvaged what they could and built the settlement Villa de la Navidad ("Christmas Town") with lumber from the ship. Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the settlement. Convinced his exploration had reached Asia, he set sail for home with the two remaining ships.
Subsequent Voyages
Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing, somewhat exaggerated report and was warmly received by the royal court. That same year he took to the seas on his second expedition and explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean. Upon arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed with all the sailors massacred. Spurning the wishes of the queen, who found slavery offensive, Columbus established a forced labor policy over the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold, believing it would prove to be profitable. His efforts produced small amounts of gold and great hatred among the native population. Before returning to Spain, Columbus left his brothers Bartholomew and Diego to govern the settlement on Hispaniola and sailed briefly around the larger Caribbean islands further convincing himself he had discovered the outer islands of China.
It wasn't until his third voyage that Columbus actually reached the mainland exploring the Orinoco River in present-day Venezuela. Unfortunately, conditions at the Hispaniola settlement had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny with settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus' claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers. The Spanish Crown sent a royal official who arrested Columbus and stripped him of his authority. He returned to Spain in chains to face the royal court. The charges were later dropped but Columbus lost his titles as governor of the Indies and for a time, much of the riches made during his voyages.
Convincing King Ferdinand that one more voyage would bring the abundant riches promised, Columbus went on what would be his last voyage in 1502, traveling along the eastern coast of Central America in an unsuccessful search for a route to the Indian Ocean. A storm wrecked one of his ships stranding the captain and his sailors on the island of Cuba. During this time, local islanders, tired of the Spaniards poor treatment and obsession with gold, refused to give them food. In a spark of inspiration, Columbus consulted an almanac and devised a plan "punish" the islanders by taking away the moon. On February 29, 1504, a lunar eclipse alarmed the natives enough to re-established trade with the Spaniards. A rescue party finally arrived, sent by the royal governor of Hispaniola in July and Columbus and his men were taken back to Spain in November of 1504.
Mixed Legacy
In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his lost titles and in May of 1505 did regain some of his riches, but his titles were never returned. He died May 20, 1506 still believing he had discovered a shorter route to Asia.
Columbus' legacy is a mixed one. He has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization as well as blamed for the destruction of the native peoples of the islands he explored. On the one hand, he failed to find that what he set out for - a new route to Asia and the riches it promised. However, in what is known as the Columbian Exchange, his expeditions set in motion the wide-spread transfer of people, plants, animals, diseases, and cultures that greatly affected nearly every society on the planet.
The horse from Europe allowed Native American tribes in the Great Plains of North America to shift from a nomadic to a hunting lifestyle. Foods from the Americas such as potatoes, tomatoes and corn became staples of Europeans and helped increase their populations. Wheat from Europe and the Old World fast became a main food source for people in the Americas. Coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became major cash crops for Latin American countries.
The Exchange also brought new diseases to both hemispheres, thought the effects were greatest in the Americas. Small pox from the Old World decimated millions of the Native American population to mere fractions of their original numbers. This more than any other factor made for European domination of the Americas. The overwhelming benefits of the Exchange went to the Europeans initially and eventually to the rest of the world. The Americas were forever altered and the once vibrant and rich cultures of the Native American civilizations were not only changed, but lost, denying the world any complete understanding of their existence.
In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his lost titles and in May of 1505 did regain some of his riches, but his titles were never returned. He died May 20, 1506 still believing he had discovered a shorter route to Asia.
Columbus' legacy is a mixed one. He has been credited for opening up the Americas to European colonization as well as blamed for the destruction of the native peoples of the islands he explored. On the one hand, he failed to find that what he set out for - a new route to Asia and the riches it promised. However, in what is known as the Columbian Exchange, his expeditions set in motion the wide-spread transfer of people, plants, animals, diseases, and cultures that greatly affected nearly every society on the planet.
The horse from Europe allowed Native American tribes in the Great Plains of North America to shift from a nomadic to a hunting lifestyle. Foods from the Americas such as potatoes, tomatoes and corn became staples of Europeans and helped increase their populations. Wheat from Europe and the Old World fast became a main food source for people in the Americas. Coffee from Africa and sugar cane from Asia became major cash crops for Latin American countries.
The Exchange also brought new diseases to both hemispheres, thought the effects were greatest in the Americas. Small pox from the Old World decimated millions of the Native American population to mere fractions of their original numbers. This more than any other factor made for European domination of the Americas. The overwhelming benefits of the Exchange went to the Europeans initially and eventually to the rest of the world. The Americas were forever altered and the once vibrant and rich cultures of the Native American civilizations were not only changed, but lost, denying the world any complete understanding of their existence.
http://www.biography.com/people/christopher-columbus-9254209?page=3
Ocean current
An ocean current is any more or less permanent or continuous, directed movement of ocean water that flows in one of the Earth's oceans.
The currents are generated from the forces acting upon the water like the earth's rotation, the wind, the temperature and salinity differences and the gravitation of the moon.
The depth contours, the shoreline and other currents influence the current's direction and strength.
Ocean currents can flow for thousands of kilometers.
They are very important in determining the climates of the continents, especially those regions bordering on the ocean.
Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the same latitude.
Deep ocean currents are driven by density and temperature gradients.
Thermohaline circulation, also known as the ocean's conveyor belt, refers to the deep ocean density-driven ocean basin currents.
These currents, which flow under the surface of the ocean and are thus hidden from immediate detection, are called submarine rivers.
The currents are generated from the forces acting upon the water like the earth's rotation, the wind, the temperature and salinity differences and the gravitation of the moon.
The depth contours, the shoreline and other currents influence the current's direction and strength.
Ocean currents can flow for thousands of kilometers.
They are very important in determining the climates of the continents, especially those regions bordering on the ocean.
Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the same latitude.
Deep ocean currents are driven by density and temperature gradients.
Thermohaline circulation, also known as the ocean's conveyor belt, refers to the deep ocean density-driven ocean basin currents.
These currents, which flow under the surface of the ocean and are thus hidden from immediate detection, are called submarine rivers.
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